Napoleon1 essays

Napoleon1 essays Turning Point Title: Napoleons Retreat from Moscow Place and Date of Event: June 22 1812 Napoleon and the Grande Arme invade Russia. December 18 1812 what is left of the Grande Arme make it back to Napoleon: Emperor of France who lead the French Arme and its allies into Barclay de Tolly: Commanded 127,000 Russian troops at the start of the Marshal Kutusov: Russian commander who replaced Barclay in mid August. Prince Bagration: Commanded 43,000 Russian troops during invasion. Wairy Louis Constant: Napoleons valet, who wrote down what he saw and Description of the Event: Napoleon took 500,000 infantry, 100,000 cavalry, and 1,400 field and siege guns for the troops on his invasion of Russia. He went up against Barclays and Bagrations troops. Napoleons strategy was to over power the Russians and drive them back as far as possible. June 24 French cross Niemen River at Kovno and Grodna and push Barclay back. Four days French capture Vilna and stayed there till July 16. Big mistake because this allowed Russians to unite forces at Smolenskby on August 1. Two weeks later Russians attack. Russians come away from battle in good shape, but the French come away in awful condition. Many troops are ill with different diseases and battle wounds. Russians replace Barclay with Kutusov. French keep trying to push forward. Another big mistake, they should have waited for winter to clear and attacked in the spring. Invade all the way to Moscow. When they get there Russians all ready burnt it to the ground so French have no shelter to stay in. Napoleon stay at Moscow for 6 weeks. Then the retreat begins. The French soldiers getting sick of war and kind of turn into a big crowd of men. Then the Russians attack them when they are so unorganized. End of November French able to reach Beresina River. All bridges out ...

4 Reasons to Major in a Foreign Language (and 3 Not To)

4 Reasons to Major in a Foreign Language (and 3 Not To) SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Gaikokugo ga suki desu ka?That’s Japanese for â€Å"Do you like foreign languages?† If your answer is a resounding yes, then a foreign language major might be for you. In 2013, I graduated from USC with a bachelor’s degree in Japanese. Though I sometimes doubted whether I should major in Japanese, I ultimately knew it was the right choice because being able to understand and use Japanese was a skill I wanted to have for the rest of my life. Moreover, I didn't just enjoy learning Japanese but also loved getting to know Japanese culture. These are the reasons I chose to major in Japanese. That said,a language major isn’t for everyone. So should you major in a foreign language? What are the reasons you should? And what are the reasons you shouldn't? In this guide, I give you four reasons to major in a foreign language and three reasons not to. I also go over what questions to ask yourself before deciding whether to pursue a language major. But first, what exactly is a foreign language major? What Is a Foreign Language Major? Before I go into the reasons you should and should not major in a foreign language, let me explain what I mean by majoring in a foreign language. Many US colleges offer undergraduatemajors that focus on a specific language and the main region/culture it's spoken in. In other words, you’re not simply majoring in a language but rather a language and where it’s most commonly used. So if your major is French, you’ll likely learn about France. Similarly, If you’re studying Mandarin Chinese, you’ll likely learn about Chinese culture. Colleges offering foreign language majors typically house them inhumanities departments or at colleges of letters, arts, and sciences (or something equivalent). Although most foreign language majors combine language and cultural studies, many are named after the language only. For example, if you’re studying Spanish (in addition to Latin American or Spanish culture), your major is most likely called Spanish instead of something like Spanish culture or Spanish language and culture. However, some schools use slightly broader names for their foreign language majors.My alma mater, USC, for example, offers an East Asian Languages and Cultures (EALC) major, which lets you study Japanese, Chinese, or Korean (as well as the language's respective area). As a result, students mainly studying Japanese might say they’re majoring in Japanese when in actuality they’re majoring in EALC with an emphasis in Japanese (as in my case). Some schools also offer foreign language majors that let youstudy more than one language at a time.One example is the University of Michigan's Romance Languages and Literatures major. For this program, students can study two Romance languages (out of Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, and French) at the same time. Finally, some majors have college language requirements but are not specifically focused on the language (or area) itself.Examples include comparative literature majors and linguistics majors. For the former, you must typically learn at least one foreign language so that you can compare texts in their original languages. For the latter, you must know a foreign language so that you can effectively analyze its linguistic properties. Though these two majors clearly involve language study, they're not the same as language majors in that they don't focus on area/cultural studiesas well. Overall, it’s arguably more accurate to call language majors "foreign culture majors" or "foreign language and culture majors," since these majors almost always combine the study of language and culture. Learning culture is just as important as learning language. My Story: I Majored in Japanese Now that you understand what a foreign language major is, let’s get down to business: who am I, and why am I writing this article? As I briefly mentioned at the beginning, I majored in a foreign language (and in English- what can I say? I love languages!). My language of choice was Japanese. Why did I choose this language? Well, I’d been studying it since junior high school, absolutely loved learning it (even though it was really, really hard at times- and still is), and envisioned myself eventually using Japanese in my career. Because I knew I wanted to major in Japanese before I even started college, I looked specifically for colleges that offered a major in Japanese. Eventually, I enrolled at USC where I declared a major in East Asian Languages and Cultures with an emphasis in Japanese. For this major, I had to take mostly Japanese-language classes as well as classes on topics relating to Japanese and East Asian studies, such as literature, art, and history. Since graduating from USC, I’ve worked as an English teacher for the JET Program (a government-sponsored program that pays you to teach English in Japan) and am now enrolled in a Japanese Studies Master of Arts program at the University of Michigan. Here are the primary reasons you can trust my advice in this article: I have firsthand experience with learning and majoring in a language:I know what kinds of classes you’ll likely need to take and understand how tough it can be to keep up your language skills (especially over those long summer breaks!). I have worked in a job that uses my target language: Obviously, what kinds of job options you'll have after majoring in a foreign language will depend on several factors, but know that I, too, have gone through the process and will try my best to lend you a (relevant) hand. I majored in what I loved: Ultimately, I chose to major in Japanese because it was something I found interesting, useful for my career goals, and downright fun. Now that we've covered all the basics, let’s take a look at the main reasons you should (and should not) major in a foreign language. 4 Reasons to Major in a Foreign Language We’ll start with the positive points. What are the benefits of majoring in a foreign language, and what are the main reasons you should consider doing it? #1: You’re Passionate About the Language and Want to Use It in Your Career This is rule #1 in my book. You should only be majoring in a foreign language if you’re absolutely passionate about it. The reason passion is so important is that learning a foreign language is really hard work and takes years of practice to become fluent. Majoring in a language is also a smart idea if you plan to use the language in your career.If you want to be a translator/interpreter, for instance, majoring in the language you want to translate is a 100% practical decision and will give you the background necessary for doing well in your job. But a foreign language major won't make you a lot of money, right? Not necessarily. Although liberal arts degrees have a reportedly harder time landing well-paying jobs, recent reports show that many liberal arts majors earn about as much as, if not more than, STEM majors do. #2: You’ll Learn a Practical and Lifelong Skill Although many people don’t think a foreign language major is practical, knowing another language is an excellent lifelong skill to have and can come in handy in a variety of situations, particularly if you want to travel abroad or work in a global industry. You've probably heard thatthere are tons of mental benefits of being bilingual, such as improved memory and better multi-tasking skills. But there are also broader benefitsof knowing a foreign language that apply to your career and lifestyle. Here's whatan article posted on Trinity Washington University’s websitehas to say about knowing multiple languages: "The ability to communicate in multiple languages is becoming more and more important in the increasingly integrated global business community.*Communicating directly with new clients and companies in their native language is one of the first steps to founding a lasting, stable international business relationship." *Emphasis mine Clearly, majoring in a foreign language not only teaches you how to speak a language but also how to communicate effectively with people (and potentially business partners!) from different cultures and language backgrounds. This is an excellent attribute to have in the workplace and might even result in higher pay in the long run. It’s also a great skill to have when applying for jobs since your ability to speak another language will help you stand out from other applicants. An article on Penn State's websiteagrees, claiming that multilingualism increases your desirability in the job market: "In our globalized world, it has become even more essential in the job market to know another language. Companies and businesses have a natural desire to expand their existing networks. Having fluency in another language gives an edge on any resume by showing employers potential to converse with an entirely different group of people."* *Emphasis mine As you can see, there are some great occupational benefits to majoring in a foreign language and being familiar with another culture! #3: You Want to Work in a Foreign Country If one of your goals is to work and live in another country- in particular, an area where your target language is spoken- a major in that language is a logical choice. Such a major proves that you are familiar with both the language and culture. For some jobs based in your target country, knowing the local language might be expected. Even if it’s not required, though, your knowing the local language couldgive a boost to your resume,as it implies you’ll require less help adjusting to your new environment. #4: You Like the Idea of Double Majoring Majoring in a foreign language can be useful for your career goals if you plan to double major. This way, you’ll have a different skill or field you can apply your language knowledge to. You’ll be most appealing as a job candidate if you pair a foreign language major with a major in an entirely different field,such as business, international relations, political science, economics, STEM, or education. This kind of double major will give you a vast range of skills you can apply to a variety of careers and fields, from business to PR to teaching. Hoping to earn a lot of money? Then pair your language major with a STEM major. According to a report by The Conversation, this combination offers the biggest potential for high earnings. (Note, however, that a dual STEM degree typically brings in the most cash.) There are even programs that encourage students to double major in STEM and a foreign language. If you’re like me and can’t get enough of the humanities, it's OK to double major in a language and another liberal arts major. Just know thatyour potential for high wages will be lower than if you combined your language major with a major in a technical- or business-oriented field. This doesn’t mean that you will for sure earn a small salary- just that your job options might be more limited. 3 Reasons Not to Major in a Foreign Language Now that we’ve gone over the good side, it's time to head on over to the dark side. What are some reasons you shouldn’t major in a foreign language? I introduce my top three below. #1: You’re Not Passionate About the Language You’re Learning This is a pretty obvious reason, but if you're not passionate about the language you’re learning and don’t intend to use it after college, don’t major in it. Learning a language is tough- sometimes it feels impossible. So if you’re majoring in one, you need to have the patience and diligence to study it for the long term. A language major means you'll be learning the language the rest of your life. This is what you must doto keep up your communicative skills and be able to use the language consistently in both your career and social life.If you’re not ready for this lifelong process or aren’t sure whether this is something you can commit to, don’t major in a foreign language. Don't know what you want? Take a class or two in your desired language of study and then decide whether this is something you can see yourself studying (and enjoying!) for a long, long time. If you enjoy learning a foreign language but are more interested in other fields, consider minoring in the language. This way, you’ll still be able to use the language fairly effectively but more so as a supplementary skill- meaning that it won’t be the main skill set you graduate with but will still be an important one. #2: You're Expecting to Be Fluent by the Time You Graduate Unfortunately, even if you study a foreign language for four years straight in college, this doesn’t necessarily mean you’ll graduate with full fluency in it. The reality is that many foreign language majors won't actually attain fluency by the end of college. It’s not that these students are bad at the language or that their schools are bad at teaching it- it’s simply that students typically need more time and language practice than what college offers. So if you're not ready to dedicate your personal life as well as your academic life to this language, it's probably not in your best interest to major in it. While it's possible to attainsome level of fluency by the time you graduate, what skill level you're at will ultimately depend on many factors, including how well you did in your language classes, whether you studied abroad (trust me, it helps!), and how often you used (and continue to use) the language outside of class. Part of fluency also depends on the language you're studying and what your native tongue is.Data released by the Foreign Service Institute of the US Department of Stateshows thatit takes native English speakersfar less time to reach proficiency in Spanish, French, or Italian than it does to reach proficiency in Japanese, Chinese, Korean, or Arabic. In my case, I spent the equivalent of four years studying Japanese in college. I even studied abroad in Tokyo for a semester. But would I say I was fluent by the time I graduated? Far from it. Though I loved the Japanese language and certainly felt I was at an advanced level, I still struggled to speak and understand it. Some of this was due to laziness- I didn’t make much of an effort to integrate Japanese into my daily life, which I strongly regret- and some of this was due to a lack of confidence in my abilities (I always got shy whenever I tried to speak Japanese with people). However, once I moved to Japan after college and began living in a small town where virtually no one spoke English, my Japanese rapidly improved. Basically, what I’m trying to get at is that you shouldn’t expect to be a totally fluent speaker in a language simply because you majored in it. In reality, you’re likely going to need to spend time outside of and after school practicing the language and really making it part of your life until you can honestly say you've reached a comfortable level of fluency. In short, a foreign language major takes a lot of additional effort to make it worth it. #3: There’s a Higher Chance of Unemployment and Low Pay I’ve already touched on this a little above, but it can be difficult for language majors to find a well-paying job (especially if you majored inonly a language and didn't double major). Let’s start by looking at unemployment rates.According to Forbes, non-technical majors have higher unemployment rates than STEM, business, and health care majors do. Moreover, recent graduates with liberal arts degreesface an unemployment rate of 9.2%. But what about salary?A 2015 study conducted by Georgetown’s Center on Education and the Workforce found that the median salary for those who majored in a foreign language was about $52,000. While this salary might not sound too bad to you, by comparing it with the median salaries of other common majors, you'll see that salaries for foreign language majors don't rank that high: General engineering: $81,000 Economics: $76,000 Architecture: $67,000 Nursing: $66,000 Public policy: $65,000 Biology: $56,000 Journalism: $56,000 History: $54,000 Foreign languages: $52,000 Commercial art and graphic design: $51,000 Psychology: $49,000 Secondary teacher education: $48,000 Overall, majoring in a foreign language is a somewhat risky business. Not only might you have more trouble finding a job, but you’re also likely to have a lower starting salary. Should You Major in a Foreign Language? 3 Questions to Ask Yourself So far we’ve looked at some of the reasons you should and should not major in a foreign language. In the end, though, should you do it? Here are three questions to ask yourself before making your final decision. #1: What Kind of Career Do You Want (or Think You Want)? Although you don’t technically have to use your major in your career, it’s a good idea to try to find a way to apply the skills you acquired in college (in this case, mastery of a foreign language) to your professional life. But what kinds of jobs will a language major prepare you for? Two of the most popular fields for language majors aretranslation and interpretation. However, there's both good and bad with this. The bad news is that these two jobs typically don't pay a ton. According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the median annual wage for translators and interpreters in May 2016 was $46,120. Wages can vary a lot, though.While the lowest 10% of translators made less than $25,370 in 2016, the highest 10% made more than $83,010. That’s a difference of almost $58,000! This variation in pay depends on a number of factors, including whether you’re a self-employed or in-house worker, where you live, and what languages you know. So what’s the good news? Translation/interpretation jobs are on the rise. According to the BLS, the projected growth rate for interpreters and translators from 2016 to 2026 is 18%- that’s % faster than the growth rate for all jobs in the US! But what if you’re not interested in becoming a translator or interpreter? That’s fine! Not everyone who studies a language wants to sit around all day translating business manuals or interpreting at conferences. Here are some examplesof other jobs can you do with a foreign language major: International relations specialist Teacher/professor Consultant Advertiser Foreign service officer Attorney Public relations For more examples of jobs for language majors, check out these excellent lists by Southeastern Louisiana University and Georgetown University. #2: How Fluent Do You Want to Become? If you’re expecting absolute fluency in your target language by the end of undergrad, know that this might not happen.(Again, this really depends on multiple factors, including what language you're learning, whether you study a lot on your own time, etc.) Although you can learn a lot with four years of college-level language instruction, it’s generally not enough to make you truly fluent in a language. This is why I suggestlooking at your bachelor’s degree as a starting point. I know, this probably sounds horrible- you spend four years learning a language and I'm calling that a starting point. But the reality is that language learning is a lifelong process. And if you expect to use your language in your future career, you’ll need to spend time after college studying and practicing it as well. Here are six ways you can further improve your language skills after college (note that you can do most of these tips during college, too!). Tip 1: Visit and/or Live in a Country That Uses Your Target Language Although easier said than done, immersion is one of the best ways to get a language down fast. If you're in college, study abroad. Already graduated? Try to apply for jobs in your target country. One "easy" way to gain access to a country is to teach English.If you’re studying Japanese as I did, you could apply for the JET Program. If you’re studying Korean or Spanish, you could apply for the EPIK program in Koreaor the Auxiliar de Conversacià ³n Program in Spain. Tip 2: Study on Your Own Time This tip is crucial (and really hard to do when you’re no longer in school!). Finding time to study on your own is what will ultimately help you keep up your language skills and stay sharp. I suggest buying some textbooks and keeping the ones you used in college so you can review what you've learned. Your goal here is to continuously work on improving your vocabulary and grammar knowledge. Flashcards are an excellent way to jog your memory. If you're like me and hate making flashcards, try using Anki or Memriseto make and download digital flashcards instead. Tip 3: Join a Local Language Group When I felt that my spoken Japanese was getting worse, I decided to look for a language group in my area using the website Meetup. Through the Japanese-language group I found, I was able to converse in Japanese with both native Japanese speakers and other language learners. The group wasn’t just great for practice but was also extremely fun! I recommend using Meetup if you ever want to look for (or make) a language group. Tip 4: Hire a Tutor or Online Language Partner If you want to practice speaking and listening but can’t find anyone to do this with in person, try looking for a language partner or tutor online. Tons of companies offer language lessons over Skype and other video chat programs. Some of the best includeVerbal Planet, italki, and Live Lingua. Tip 5: Attend a Language School If you're hoping to improve your language skills and prefer doing so in an academic environment, consider applying to a language school. While tuition can be high, the experience and vast set of skills you acquire often make it worth the price. For example, many people I know attended aMiddlebury Language School over the summer- and all of them loved it! Tip 6: Go to Graduate School If you not only want to become fluent in a language but also want to be able to use it effectively in both professional and academic settings, grad school might be a good option for you. However, as you probably know, graduate programs (particularly master's programs) in the US can get pretty expensive, soI recommend applying for as many fellowships as possible. One of the best-funded scholarships for language learners is theForeign Languages and Area Studies (FLAS) program, which typically covers full tuition and offers a yearly stipend of $15,000 for grad students ($5,000 for undergrads). #3: What Language Are You Interested In? It’s important to understand that if you plan to use your foreign language major in a career, then your job/salary prospective will depend, in part, on which language you choose to study. For those of you thinking about becoming translators/interpreters, here’s what theBLS has to say about the types of languages that will be most in demand: "Demand will likely remain strong for translators of frequently translated languages, such as French, German, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish.Demand also should be strong for translators of Arabic and other Middle Eastern languages;for the principal Asian languages including Chinese, Japanese, Hindi, and Korean;and for the indigenous languages from Mexico and Central America such as Mixtec, Zapotec, and Mayan languages."* *All bold emphasis mine If you want to work for the US government, your best bet will be to major in a critical language. But what is a critical language exactly? According to the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs (ECA), critical languages are languages that are "less commonly taught in US schools, but are essential to America’s positive engagement with the world." At present, there are 14 critical languages: Arabic Azerbaijani Bangla Chinese Hindi Indonesian Japanese Korean Persian Punjabi Russian Swahili Turkish Urdu Note that thisdoesn’t mean you won’t be able to find a job if you studied a language not on this list, such as Spanish, French, or Portuguese. Rather, all this indicates is that if you’re planning to work for the US government in particular, you might have a slightly harder time getting a job, as there is a smaller need for your language than there is for the ones listed above. Conclusion: When to Pursue a Foreign Language Major Overall, there are both advantages and disadvantages to majoring in a foreign language. I chose to major in Japanese because I knew it was the right path for me- and one I really,really wanted to take, despite the challenges I'd inevitably face. If you're thinking of pursuing a language major, make sure you're doing so for the right reasons. Once again, here are the four best reasons to major in a foreign language: You’re head over heels in love with the languageand want to make a career out of it You’ll learn skills you can apply to a variety of careers and situations You’ll be more likely to secure a job abroad should you want to work outside the US You’re interested in double majoring, which will give a professional boost to your foreign language major by equipping you with more skills you can use in the future That said, majoring in a foreign language isn't for everyone. Here are the top reasons you should not major in a foreign language: You’re not passionate about the language you’re studying You're expecting to be totally fluent by the time you graduate (while not impossible, this usually requires you to spend a lot of extra time studying and practicing your language) You’ll face a higher risk of unemployment and a lower starting salary If you're still on the fence about pursuing a language major, ask yourself the following questions to help you determine whether this major is the right decision for you: What kind of career do you want? How fluent do you want to become? What language do you want to study? In the end, whether you decide to major in a foreign language is your choice and yours alone. Just make sure you have a good reason to do so and have considered all possible pros and cons before committing to a language major! What’s Next? Not sure what to major in? Get expert advice in our guide to choosing a college major, and learn the five main factors to consider before you declare a major. Foreign language majors can be lots of fun- but they're not typically the most lucrative. Our guide tells you which college majors are likely to bring in the most cash, and offers tips on whether you should pursue one. What are the worst majors for college students? If, after graduation, you want to have an easier time finding a job with ahigh salary, consider avoiding these 26 majors. Want to build the best possible college application? We can help. PrepScholar Admissions is the world's best admissions consulting service. We combine world-class admissions counselors with our data-driven, proprietary admissions strategies. We've overseen thousands of students get into their top choice schools, from state colleges to the Ivy League. We know what kinds of students colleges want to admit. We want to get you admitted to your dream schools. Learn more about PrepScholar Admissions to maximize your chance of getting in.

Native American Indians Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Native American Indians - Essay Example Many of them believe that diseases and illnesses are forms of punishment from the gods from making them angry. Some believed that if a person plays his part in his environment and conduct himself so as to please the gods he will be spared from illnesses and misfortunes. Others believe that these are a part of the cycle of life. In earlier times their little contact with the wider society helped to form some of their beliefs. Traditionally, the Indians put diseases into two general classifications. One was diseases that were termed as environmental causes such as injuries, intestinal disorders and rheumatism (Trafzer 96). These were illnesses and diseases that could be attributed to apparent causes. The treatment for these types of illnesses was found in the natural environment. This included animals, medicinal plants, and minerals. Many of these natural remedies were kept in every home and a knowledgeable family member would use the appropriate remedy to according to the disease or illness. The second type of disease was that caused by supernatural forces. The causes of these diseases were not as apparent or easy to determine as the former category of diseases and illnesses. The Indians had their own health personnel to cure these illnesses. The healer had to possess certain characteristics before he was allowed to practice. One of the major qualifications was to be honest, brave and humble. These practitioners were also called to intervene in the treatment of those who had illnesses that were not readily cured by normal home remedies. Some of the methods used by the practitioners or tribal healers were charms, dances and prayers. The tribal healers are normally in possession of paraphernalia including animal parts. These were supposed to ward of evil spirits. The Indian believed in a number of supernatural causes of diseases. Prevalent among these causes were sorcery, taboo violation, and soul loss. They believed that any illness is

Persuasion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Persuasion - Essay Example This is a great advantage for the Mac computers because many users like to install and use multiple operating systems for different uses (Stoncypher, 2010). Therefore, with apple computers, you can run multiple operating systems on a single machine. Secondly, apple computers software has advantage over windows computers. This is because apple’s software is compatible with many others as compared to windows (Martin, 2008). Apples software is very different from that of Microsoft in that Microsoft’s software is not compatible with apples software. For example, the type of files, file extensions and complex codes in the operating system are different, and apple can handle most of them, unlike windows computers (Emigh, 2007). The other advantage of apple computers over windows computers lies in their design (Martin, 2008). Macs are cosmetically designed to appeal to the user’s requirements. Apples designs are light and thin, and powerful than windows. The design itself is engineered to meet high performance standards than other computers. Apple computers have an appealing design to the eyes of the user, with an apple logo that is lit at the back, a backlit keyboard and keys. Apples design eliminates bulkiness and uses spinning hard drive technology and not the optical drive to enhance high performance (Martin, 2008). This hard drive technology makes apple’s drive faster than windows computer drives, and this saves the designs space hence making apple lighter and slim as compared to windows computers. The design of apples cooling system has been engineered to draw air from the sides, to ensure that they remain cool for a long period. Apple’s speakers have been custom designed to utili ze every space available and provides good sound response and high quality performance. The other advantage of apple computers over windows is the security of their system. Windows PCs are considered more insecure than apples

Locke on Language Essay Example for Free

Locke on Language Essay John Locke (1632-1704) is a great influential British philosopher, reputed by many as the first of the great English empiricists. He offered a comprehensive philosophy of language as well, which was the first of its kind in modern philosophy. In line with Descartes, he pushed reason to the forefront as a tool of philosophical enquiry and opposed authoritarianism and blind acceptance of dictates of religion or superstitions. Lockes masterpiece, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, concerns itself with determining the limits of human understanding and the legitimacy of knowledge claims. Specifically, Book III of the work investigates into language and its importance in the process of knowledge and epistemological enquiries. Let me brief the main aspects of his approach to language and the context from which it evolves out. Body of the Essay (Lockean Enquiry into Language) In the four Books of the Essay, Locke considers the sources and nature of human knowledge and as a part of it he takes up a study of language. (An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke, 1. 1. 7. , p. 47). Against Descartes, he claimed, that mind has no innate ideas (primary notions or inborn ideas). Human mind is a tabula rasa (clear slate) and experiences write on it. In holding this view he subscribes to the axiom of empiricism that ‘there is nothing in the intellect that was not previously in the senses’. Ideas are but materials, out of which, knowledge is constructed. Neither speculative or innate moral principles, nor ideas, such as God, identity, etc. , are there in the mind of the new-born. ‘Children and the idiots prove it’, Locke says. His theory of substratum and substance, and the distinction he makes between primary and secondary qualities are all someway connected to his theory of language. The distinction between real essences and nominal essences, which he makes, stems from his theories of substance and qualities. It seems Locke holds some version of the representational theory of perception, though some scholars dispute it. Locke is not at all skeptic about substances as did Hume. Since Berkeley, Locke’s theory of the substratum or substance has been attacked as incoherent. Since we have no such experience of such an entity there is no way to derive such an idea from experience, his critics argue. (cf. I. IV. 18. p 95) The real essence of a material thing is its atomic constitution. The atomic constitution is the causal basis of all the observable properties of the thing. If the real essences were known all the observable properties could be deduced from it. These real essences are quite unknown to us according to Locke. Ayer interprets: ‘substance in general’ means whatever it is that supports qualities, while the real essence means ‘the particular atomic constitution lying behind observable qualities. Ayer treats the unknown substratum as the same as real essence. This interpretation eliminates the need to explain particulars without properties. But it is to be accepted that such reductionism lacks textual support from Locke and it conflicts some of Locke’s own positions according to some critics. A theory of meaning (semantic theory) is central to any philosophical account of language Locke also develops one when he claims that our words (general terms) refer to our (abstract) ideas. Abstract ideas and classification are of central importance to Locke’s discussion of language. Words that stand for ideas can be distinguished as ideas of substances, simple modes, mixed modes, relations etc. Not all words are ideas, for example, particles that relate. In his analysis of language, Locke gives more attention to nouns than to verbs (II. 7. 1. p 471). Though Locke’s main semantic theory claimed that â€Å"Words in their primary or immediate signification signify nothing but the ideas in the mind of him that uses them†, it was vehemently criticized as a classic blunder in semantic theory. For J. S. Mill, Locke seems not distinguishing the meaning of the word from its reference. But as Norman Kretzmann rightly points out Locke distinguishes between meaning and reference (Tipton, 1977, pp. 123-140). In Locke’s discussion on substances, he says, physical substances are atoms and things made up of atoms. But we have no experience of the atomic structure of horses and tables. Horses and tables are known through secondary qualities such as color, taste, smell etc and primary qualities such as shape and extension. Hence he held that real essence cannot give meaning of names. Ordinary people are the chief makers of language, he believed. Conclusion Locke brought in a tradition in language theory that influenced James Campbell and I. A. Richards, rhetoricians like Edward P. J. Corbett, Condillac, Saussure and structuralists like Claude Levi-Strauss. Linguistic philosophy (logical positivism, logical atomism and so on) in 20th century had something to respond to Locke if not to receive from him. However, I wouldn’t reckon Locke as a linguist than an empiricist. References Locke, John (1995) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Aemherst, New York: Prometheus Books. Kretzmann, Norman (1977) â€Å"The Main Thesis of Locke’s Semantic Theory†. in Locke on Human Understanding,(ed) I. C. Tipton. pp. 123-140.

Graduation Speech -- Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

A wise person once said something to this effect: "Quotes are just another way of masking one's true feelings." I'd tell you the person who wrote it, but I can barely even remember it word for word. It's funny I crossed paths with this quote just days before I was informed I would be speaking at commencement. Someone or something, maybe a higher power, meant for this quote and I to meet. The irony of the whole situation is that the author's quote was turned into a quote, which is most likely the opposite of their intentions. My reasoning for bringing up this situation is simple. When first given the task of writing this speech, I was at a loss for ideas. Mr. Troll told me to begin with a quote or say something profound - a task that was a lot easier said than done. In all honesty, it was such a hard task that it kept me thinking until the night before the speech was due, which is when I actually began working on it. All of a sudden I remembered, "What about that quote that disses quotes!?" Then it hit me - take it and run. Instead of disguising my voice with fancy, long words I don't even understand, I decided to just be me. After all, me is really all I can be. I'm going to make my own quotes with the help from a few so someone can bite from my original thoughts, not vice versa. People kept telling me to find a central topic to focus on and work around. Yeah, I tried that, but of course, it didn't work. So I eventually decided to say whatever came to mind. This is how I came to recite the words, which are now flowing through the complex workings of your inner ears. Freshmen year was a blast. As soon as I walked through the doors of the hallowed halls of Kennedy, I knew all would be fine. Before entering I was told man... ...s not trying to ruin my life or make me hate him, he was only trying to mold me into a successful student. I will forever be grateful to him for doing what he did. Some call it making one tough, others call it tough love, but I call it devotion. He was so devoted to my education that he would not let me slip up. For this, I would like to say thanks. Thanks Vick! I owe you one. In conclusion, I want to say that I hope you take something away from the words I have said. If you do, great, and even if you don't, I'm not worried because it is not the end of the world. To the graduating class of 2003, I have one final tidbit to say: "We made it, and no one can take this day away from us." The very last thing I have to say is, "Thanks Mom! One day I'll be able to invest in you all that you have invested in me. I mean that both financially and emotionally. I love you!" Graduation Speech -- Graduation Speech, Commencement Address A wise person once said something to this effect: "Quotes are just another way of masking one's true feelings." I'd tell you the person who wrote it, but I can barely even remember it word for word. It's funny I crossed paths with this quote just days before I was informed I would be speaking at commencement. Someone or something, maybe a higher power, meant for this quote and I to meet. The irony of the whole situation is that the author's quote was turned into a quote, which is most likely the opposite of their intentions. My reasoning for bringing up this situation is simple. When first given the task of writing this speech, I was at a loss for ideas. Mr. Troll told me to begin with a quote or say something profound - a task that was a lot easier said than done. In all honesty, it was such a hard task that it kept me thinking until the night before the speech was due, which is when I actually began working on it. All of a sudden I remembered, "What about that quote that disses quotes!?" Then it hit me - take it and run. Instead of disguising my voice with fancy, long words I don't even understand, I decided to just be me. After all, me is really all I can be. I'm going to make my own quotes with the help from a few so someone can bite from my original thoughts, not vice versa. People kept telling me to find a central topic to focus on and work around. Yeah, I tried that, but of course, it didn't work. So I eventually decided to say whatever came to mind. This is how I came to recite the words, which are now flowing through the complex workings of your inner ears. Freshmen year was a blast. As soon as I walked through the doors of the hallowed halls of Kennedy, I knew all would be fine. Before entering I was told man... ...s not trying to ruin my life or make me hate him, he was only trying to mold me into a successful student. I will forever be grateful to him for doing what he did. Some call it making one tough, others call it tough love, but I call it devotion. He was so devoted to my education that he would not let me slip up. For this, I would like to say thanks. Thanks Vick! I owe you one. In conclusion, I want to say that I hope you take something away from the words I have said. If you do, great, and even if you don't, I'm not worried because it is not the end of the world. To the graduating class of 2003, I have one final tidbit to say: "We made it, and no one can take this day away from us." The very last thing I have to say is, "Thanks Mom! One day I'll be able to invest in you all that you have invested in me. I mean that both financially and emotionally. I love you!"

Computer Operating System Essay

The Windows series of operating systems produced by the Microsoft Corporation primarily make use of two file systems: the File Allocation Table (FAT) and the New Technology File System (NTFS). Additionally, some versions of Windows NT also support the use of the High Performance File System (HPFS), a result of Microsoft’s joint developer involvement with IBM to produce the OS/2 operating system. (Duncan, 1989; Custer, 1994) Initially released with DOS, FAT makes use of a table which indexes information on which sections of the storage medium are free, unusable or taken up by files. Disk space is partitioned into distinct units known as sectors or clusters. There is no real organization to the directory structure of FAT, and as such free disk space can become distributed across many different sectors, resulting in file space being allocated in discontiguous sectors. As such, data is highly fragmented and increases seek times. (Microsoft, 2007; Duncan 1989) HPFS was first introduced with OS/2. It improved over the core functionality of the FAT system by introducing additional room for metadata attributes. Allocation units were changed from clusters to physical sectors of 512 bytes each, optimizing the disk space used for each file. HPFS directory entries also hold more attribute data: they possess single sector FNODEs that serve as the control structure for each directory. Fragmentation is drastically reduced by allocating as much of a file in contiguous sectors. However, the HPFS is dependent on a Super Block which contains the control structures of the root directory – essentially the root FNODE. The Super Block is thus vulnerable to corruption or loss from a bad sector which can compromise an entire partition’s useability. (Microsoft, 2007; Duncan, 1989) NTFS was designed to meet the growing demand for network servers and file sharing capabilities and it borrowed many of its concepts from the HPFS. (Kozierok, 2001) It is a journaling file system which permits greater recoverability by reverting files back to a useable state in the event of power failures and system crashes that occur during file transactions. Additionally, it also makes use of an expanded meta-data system which allows administrators to set a wider variety of access and use controls to files. The NTFS also optimizes data by storing small files into the Master File Table of the NTFS itself. The larger system format limit provides means that allocation units are much more refined as well. (Microsoft, 2004; 2007) Memory management on Windows has an access limit of up to 4GB of physical memory, and as such, the allocation of memory to processes is limited by this cap. By using paging to transfer pages of data between main memory and an auxiliary storage device such as a hard drive, it can overcome some of the limitations of physical RAM and enable system processes to have their own 4GB logical address space. Additionally, Windows accords memory protection to process in such a manner as to prevent access to one another, which is crucial to ensure that processes can operate simultaneously without compromising their functionality. (Garg, 2008) Microsoft Windows is essentially an operating system that is built with multi-tasking in mind, which in effect, allows multiple programs to be executed simultaneously. Each application is composed of one or more processes, each of which provides the resources needed to execute a program. Processes are composed of threads, a discrete unit by which processor time is allocated and a single thread, called the primary thread initiates the process. Each thread may execute any portion of code in the process, including those already being executed by another thread. Virtual address space and system resources are shared by threads of a single process, though exception handlers, scheduling priority and other components that determine a thread’s importance and role within the context of a process. (Microsoft Developer Network, 2008) Windows possesses many of the essential features crucial to basic security such as authentication and access control, encryption schemes and protection profiles. However, the API for cryptography is easily compromised by the fact that it easily trusts multiple keys in certifying authority of access. As such, only one code key is necessary to render a system vulnerable. Such a compromise is possible either through accidental disclosure of the private key or when the certifying authority mistakenly issues a certificate. On the level of network security protocol, Windows makes use of IPSec, a cryptographic IP-level protection system which is an open standard in the industry, which functions not only through data encryption and verification of hosts but by detecting modifications made to data during network transit. (Quardt, 2004) Windows security is at its most problematic with regards to applications and non-operating system products. Part of the problem is that for the purposes of consumer convenience, Microsoft Windows continues to be reliant on legacy applications that contain security threats that were of trivial matter during their initial release. Furthermore, the signature architecture of Microsoft programs is to mix application code and data, such as ActiveX for example, can allow untrusted data from outside the system to activate code. (Quardt, 2004) Also, Windows approves digitally signed code even if it is supplied from outside of the system, which means that a system administrator must implicitly trust whoever has signed the code to have subjected it to appropriate code review. In essence, the problem with Windows security is that trust and certification is so decentralized as to deny systems administrators total control and authority over the trustworthiness of code.   REFERENCES Microsoft Corporation. (2007, May 7) Overview of FAT, HPFS and NTFS File Systems. Retrieved August 9, 2008 from: http://support. microsoft. com/kb/100108 Microsoft Corporation (2004, May 5) Local File Systems for Windows. Retrieved August 9, 2008: http://download. microsoft. com/download/5/b/5/5b5bec17-ea71-4653-9539-204a672f11cf/LocFileSys. doc Duncan, R. (1989, September) Design goals and implementation of the new High Performance File System. Microsoft Systems Journal, 4, 5, 1-13. Custer, H. (1994) Inside the Windows NT File System. Washington: Microsoft Press. Kozierok, C. M. (2001, April 17). Overview and History of NTFS. PCGuide. Garg, P. â€Å"Windows Memory Management. † Intellectual Heaven. Retrieved August 10, 2008 from: http://www. intellectualheaven. com/Articles/WinMM. pdf Microsoft Developer Network (2008, August 7). â€Å"About Processes and Threads. † Retrieved August 10, 2008 from: http://msdn. microsoft. com/en-us/library/ms681917(VS. 85,printer). aspx Hart, J. M. (2004) Windows System Programming, 3rd Edition. Boston: Addison-Wesley Professional. Quandt, S. (2004, May 25) â€Å"Linux and Windows security compared. † Linux. com Retrieved August 11, 2008 from: http://www. linux. com/articles/36273? page=2